Papers in this
volume refer to the Seminar on convergence, pidginization and simplification
with special reference to the Indian situation.
This seminar was conducted in the month of 1981.
The delay in taking the decision to publish this volume and delay in
submitting the revised papers by some of the contributors has added further
delay in the publication of this volume. The papers in this volume refer to the
Indian situation hence an appropriate title viz.
"papers in Indian Socio-Linguistics" has been given to it.
This volume on Papers in
Indian Socio-Linguistics" consists of 15 papers.
Out of this, 6 papers are related to convergence and 8 papers are related
to Pidgins, Pidginization, and simplification and one paper is related to the
code mixing.
Emeneaus's paper on
South Asia
as a Linguistic area deals about the issues of convergence between languages.
P.B. Pandit's book on "
India
as a Socio-linguistic Area" also deals cases of convergence.
In addition to this, other scholars have also dealt on convergence.
As reported on I.J.D.L. Vol.3,
No.4, Jan. 1974, Names of the Scholars, who have worked in the area of
convergence are as follows:
1.
Bendix
and Pandit report on specific cases of convergence involving Languages of
different families.
2.
Masica describes area wise syntactic
features which set the
South Asia
area apart from neighbouring languages.
3.
Ante describes what appears to be an
ongoing process akin to pidgnization, by which "Bombay Hindi-Urdu" has
come to resemble Marathi in many features.
4.
Desilva and Ullrich report on different
aspect of convergence between varieties of the same language in a diglossia
relationship.
5.
Emeneau's paper can be regarded as the
latest in the series of detailed examination of features shared by Dravidian and
Indo-Aryan and their historical implications.
6.
Kuiper and South also deal with the
history of Dravidian influence on Indo-Aryan.
It
is said in the same Journal on convergence that "what do we mean by
`convergence' in South Asian context? Primarily, we are referring to the
distinctive characteristic of a "Linguistic Area" which Emeneau has
defined "as an area which includes languages belonging to more than one
family but showing traits in common which are found not to belong to the other
members of (at least) one of the families" (1956: 16, note 28).
In other words, we refer to resemblances between languages which are the
result of contact rather than common origin, such as Numeral classifies in
Indo-Aryan Languages (Emeneau 1956) which clearly originated in the Eastern end
of the sub-continent and typically associated with the languages of the
Sino-Tibetan groups".
Gumperz
and Wilson (1971) have reported in their study of Marathi speaking area where
three languages spoken in the village Kupwar viz Kannada (Dravidian), Marathi (Indi-Aryan)
and Urdu (Indo-Aryan) are substantially identical in phonology, syntax and
semantics and differ only in Morpho-Phonemics.
Gumperz
and Wilson make the following comment on the social function of the situations
like that of Kupwar.
"This Linguistic
situation seems uniquely suited to the social situation
.
While language distinctions maintained, actual messages show word for
word or morph for morph translatability, and speakers can therefore switch
from one code to another with a minimum additional learning (1971: 164-5).
In the same way pandit's
study of Saurastri in Tamil Nadu also reveals that a segment of the grammar, the
system of number names is identical in both Saurashtri and Tamil, whereas the
lexical forms of saurashtri numerals are mainly Indo-Aryan.
In the present volume,
there are three parts. Part I
contains papers related to convergence, part II contains paper related to
pidgins, pidginization, creolization and simplification, part III contains one
paper on code mixing. Brief
summaries of the papers presented in this volume are given below in the order of
part I, II, III.
In the present volume, in
the part I following papers deal with convergence.
1. Thomas,
Susheela
Social aspects and the
Dynamics of convergence.
2. Arokianathan,
S.
Writing and Diglossic
convergence: A case study of Tamil Radio Plays.
3. Karunakaran, K
Linguistic convergence in
Diglossic situations.
4. Thampuran, R.R.
Process of convergence and
language shift:
A case study of the Kudumb
is of Kerala.
5. K.P. Acharya
and G.V. Natarajan
Some aspects of Lexical and
Grammatical convergence in Gondi.
6. Mustafa,
Khateeb, S.
Some aspects of
Phonological and Grammatical convergence of Dakkhini
and Telugu.
Susheela Thomas in her
paper on "Social aspects and the Dynamics of convergence" discusses
and compares the issues of convergence in Kasargod of Kerala and Kupwar of
Karnataka bordering
Maharashtra
.
In the case of Kupwar as
pointed out by Gumerz, J.J. a type of convergence has taken place where a single
underlying grammar could be drawn for the languages in contact viz. Kannada,
Marathi and Urdu. All these three
languages belonging to the different families share remarkably in phonology,
syntax and semantics but differ only in Morpho-Phonemics.
The Kasargod situation is
different from that of Kupwar. The
variety of Kannada used for intergroup communication in Kasargod is least
influenced by Malayalam. On the
other hand, the variety of Malayalam used for intergroup communication in
Kasargod has converged more towards Kannada and Tulu, thereby making convergence
unidirectional and it has direct co-relation between social aspects and the
dynamics of convergence. Author
concludes her paper with the remarks that the direction of convergence in
Kasargod has a direct co-relation between the social aspects and the dynamics of
convergence.
Arokianathan in his paper
on "writing and Diglossic convergence: A case study of Tamil Radio
plays" discusses the role of writing in the ongoing dynamic situation
existing between the two varieties of Tamil i.e. spoken and written.
Author says that there is a gap between the script and the reading
pronunciation in Tamil. Script
indirectly held to stabilize the cleavage between the two varieties viz. High
and low. Generally, script
represents the sounds of that particular language.
But in a Diglossic language like Tamil, the existing script system seems
to be inadequate to some extent to represent the sounds of the variety of that
language. Clusters are not allowed
in the writing system without the enunciative vowel in between the cluster.
He discusses the issues about the print medium and Radio medium.
Author comes to the conclusion that High and Low variety of Tamil have a
tendency to come closer each other by assimilating the High variety forms.
Karunakaran in his paper on
"Linguistic convergence in Diglossic situation" discusses many issues
relating to convergence and Diglossic situation with reference to Tamil.
Author states that
Linguistic convergence takes place due to the processes of pidginization,
creolization, realignment or a combination of all these.
The Diglossic situation is concerned with the use of non-native usages,
the practice of nativisation of Linguistic features, realignment of Linguistic
features in standard norms and the efficiency of the usages in communication.
The existence of the spoken
(low) variety and the Literary (High) variety makes the Tamil language situation
Diglossic. In this Diglossic
situation a convergece is also found in Tamil.
Author further states that
two distinct varieties of Tamil are noticed viz. Literary variety (H) and the
spoken variety (L) and if we go into the language use we could easily identify
the use of a third variety. This
variety is represented as modern Literary variety or standard spoken variety.
Thus, it can be said that Tamil is the clear case of triglossia.
The intermediate variety referred above viz. standard spoken variety has
functional significance like the other two.
Author further states that such an intermediate variety if used in
teaching and other literary materials, it would motivate the learning process of
the Adults.
Author concludes his paper
with the remarks that the productive linguistic convergence is the process of
pidginisation taking place which later on leads to creolization.
As systematic frame work is not available at present to describe
Linguistic convergence and diglossic situation, it is time that one should try
to frame it.
Thampuran in his paper
"process of convergence and language shift: A case study of Kudumbis of
Kerala" discusses some aspects of Linguistic convergence and Language shift
among the Kudumbis, a Konkani speaking Linguistic minority settled in Kerala.
Kudumbis and other Konkanis speaking groups like Gowda Saraswat Brahmins,
Vaisyas and Sonars have migrated from
Goa
during the later half of the 16th century due to the religious
persecution of the Portugese in
Goa
. The Kudumbis have 400 years of
history in the
land
of
Kerala
. The Author discusses mainly three
issues viz.
1.
What
are the major converging features in the Linguistic structures of Kudumbi
Konkani?
2.
What are the causes of Language shift among this
Linguistic minority?
3.
Whether or not socio-political and Economic
factors are responsible for the shift and why there is a decrease in the degree
of transmission of Kudumbi Konkani to the future generation.
K.P.
Acharya and G.V. Natarajan in their paper "Some aspects of lexical and
Grammatical convergence in Gondi" have attempted to demonstrate that how
Gondi a Central Dravidian Language is influenced by Hindi and other Aryan
Languages of various levels of grammatical description particularly on the
grammatical and lexical levels. Some
of the areas in which grammatical convergence is noticed are (1) Adjectival
concordance (2) Abundant use of copula constructions (3) compound verbs etc.
Lexical convergence is of two types: one type is the adoption of the borrowed
words into the native system in toto. In
another type, the core of the lexical item s of the Aryan origin and the endings
are of Gondi origin.
Khateeb
S. Mustafa in his paper " Some aspects of Phonological and Grammatical
convergence of dakkini and Telugu"explains some aspects of convergence of
Dakkini and Telugu at phonological and Grammatical levels.
His analysis is based on the data of Dakkhini spoken in Chittoor district
of Andhra Pradesh.
In
the introduction, he traces the history of Dakkhini since 1300 A.D. He discusses
convergence keeping both internal and external factors.
He equates internal factors to structural factors and external as
non-structural factors such as Bilingualism, Sociocultural context etc.
His
observations of convergence at phonological level are:
1.
Presence of phonemes /n/ and /l/ in Dakkhini
2.
/c/ changing into /s/
3.
Diphthongization
His
observations of convergence at grammatical level are:
1.
Absence
of ne construction in Dakkhini
2.
Echo-word formation.
3.
Onomatopoeia
4.
Gender distinction in plural
5.
Habitual present cum future
6.
Cardinal numerals
7.
Use of Telugu particle le in Dakkhini
8.
Relative participle construction
9.
Reduplication of negative past participle
10.
Reported speech
11.
Sentences without copula.
He
concludes his paper with the remarks that Telugu is the main source Language of
convergence in Dakkhini Urdu both at Phonological and Morphological levels.
PART
II
There
are 8 papers in the part two of this volume related to pidgins, pidnization,
creolization and simplification.
David
Crystal in his work "A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics" writes
about pidgins as follows:
A
term used in Socio-Linguistics to refer to a Language with a markedly reduced Grammatical
Structure Lexicon and Stylistic range compared with other languages,
and which is the native language of no one.
Structures which have been reduced in this way are said to be "pidginised".
Pidgins are formed by two speech communities attempting to communicate
each successively approximately to the more obvious features of the other's
language. Such developments need
considerable motivation on the part of the speakers and it is therefore not
surprising that pidgin languages flourish in areas of economic
development as in the pidgins based on English, French, Spanish and Portuguese,
the East and
West Indies
,
Africa
and
Americas
. Pidgins become creolised when they
become the mother tongue of a community.
Pidgins
arise out of the necessity of communication between speakers belonging to
different languages/language families. As
pointed out by Dr.M.V.Sreedhar (1974) "Adequate attention has not been
given by Indian Linguists to the pidgin and Creole languages.
The Linguistic significance of pidgins creoles was recognized at the
beginning of this century, notably by Schucherdt (1909), Jesperson (1932) and
Herikevit (1936). However, they did
not make any distinction between pidgins and Creoles.
These languages were first distinguished by Bloomfield (1933:472-4),
Reinecke (1935: xii, xvi) also distinguished them but called them "that
they were marginal also in the attitude towards them on the part of those who
speak one of the languages from which they derive and in terms of our knowledge
about them, but these languages are of central importance to our understanding
of language and Central to the lives of some millions of people".
There
are different theories regarding the origin of the pidgins.
Some of them are as follows:
1. The Baby
talk theory :
Charles Leland in 1876
writing about
China
coast pidgin English gives certain features of the pidgin and concludes by
saying "what remains can present no difficulty
to anyone who can understand the Baby talk.
They noticed that pidgin speakers and children after approximated to the
standard pronunciation, that they both used a high proposition of content words
and relatively few function words, that in the speech of both, morphological
change was rare if not altogether absent, that word classes were much less
rigidly established and that pronominal contrasts were frequently reduced".
2. The
Independent parallel development theory :
Robert A Hall, Jr. was
among the first scholars to recognize the Independent parallel development of
pidgins.
3. Monogenetic
/ Relexification theory :
According to this theory,
all European Language based pidgins and Creoles derive from a 15th
Century Portuguese pidgin. Relexification
means replacement of the lexicon of one stock by the lexicon of another.
In the present volume, the
following papers deal on pidgins, pidginization creolization and simplification.
1. Srivastava,
R.N.
A functional perceptive to
the study of pidgins.
2. Mohan, Peggy
Pidgins and Pidgin myths in
polyglot
India
.
3. Sreedhar M.V.
Pidgninization and
simplification
4. Subba Rao, K.V.
Child language,
pidginization, creolization and Decreolization.
5. Singh, V.D.
Portrait of a pidgin: Bazar
Hindi
6. Roy, C.J.
Malayalam A south
Indian Creole
7. Hosali, Priya
Butler
English
8. Ekka, Francis
Halbi Dissected: A study of
Language mixture
R.N. Srivastava* in his paper "A functional perspective to the study
of pidgins" has made an attempt to explain and demonstrate how pidgin as a
language form shows a direct relation to the type of functional load it carries
on itself. He also demonstrates that
pidgins have "basics" of language and their formal characteristic
features are the reflex of the reduced functional load assigned to them.
Paper also explains the nature and functions of the pidgin language
arising as a medium of communication between speakers of different languages
characterized by hybridized lexicon and reduced grammatical structure.
* Editor deeply
regrets the demise of Prof. R.N. Srivastava for his untimely death.
Author also gives
characteristics of pidgin such as (1) Deficient in structure (2) Defective in
code (3) Parasitic in form and function (4) Unnatural in Linguistic status (5)
Less evolved.
Peggy Mohan in her paper
"Pidgins and Pidgin myths in polyglot
India
" explains the nature and functions of the pidgin languages.
The study of the languages in
Caribbean
region has established that pidgin/creole languages were the most important
hybrid languages. When the study of
pidgin/creole entered
Africa
beyond its European related pidgins and Creoles, it encountered a
Socio-linguistic situation for more complex than it was thought.
Author also discusses the
situation in
India
which presents a range of language situations complex enough for the
development of a comprehensive theory. Author
compares the features of Non-standard languages/Dialects with the features of
the pidgin/creole languages and says that Non-standard languages need not be
pidgins/Creoles. She has also dealt
about language death which she defines as a process of reduction affecting three
aspects of a language, viz.
a)
The size of the speaker community
b)
The number of functions discharged by the language
c)
Actual structure.
Author
also raises the issue of Indian Bazaar vernaculars which are often another area
of suspected pidginization. Author
remarks that some of these languages are not pidgins at all.
She also discusses the features of hybrid languages and Koine referring
to the Urdu language which has a hybrid character.
Author
also remarks that Indian English inspite of its simplification in structure is
not a pidgin/creole. Author
concludes her paper with the remarks that "so our theory is not currently
confronted with more complex situations in
India
and
Africa
, but with situations which promise to become even more complex and less pidgin
in the future. We have to be
sensitive to these environmental demands on our theory or run the risk of
becoming irrelevant in the future".
Sreedhar,
M.V. in his paper "pidginization and simplication" states that pidgin
languages are the corrupt products or simplified forms of the "Upper
language". This upper language
presents cultural superiority as the Donar language.
Such notions refer the `Baby talk' hypothesis (Bloom-field 1933) as the
cause of the origin of the pidgins. Hall
(1966) also claims that phonological system of pidgin and creole languages are
much simpler than the phonological system of various natural languages which may
have contributed to some extent in their formation.
Author
says that the simplification theory can hold its ground only if the pidgins and
Creoles are analysed from the upper language perspective without looking to the
significant role of the native languages of the pidgin and creole speakers.
Author discusses such issues with the illustrative examples from
Nagapidgin (Nagamese), Sadari and Halbi.
K.V.
Subba Rao in his paper on "child language pidginization and creolization"
has made an attempt to study the acqusition of language of a child in a
situation where the child was exposed to three different languages belonging to
three different language families. Author
has presented his data which shows that the child could not keep the three codes
distinct in the initial stages, though it appeared that the basic syntactic
structure was that of Hindi:
Author
also argues that novel features emerge in pidgins and Creoles like Fiji-Bhojpuri
creole, the Mauritius-Bhojpuri creole, the Bombay Hindi pidgin and the Naga
pidgin. Author observes that the
simplification process in the child language would be similar to the processes
of simplification that take place in pidginization and Creolization.
Author also feels that instances of code mixing in child language is
similar to the one found in pidgins and Creoles in multilingual situations.
Author also remarks that child's language during acquisition and pidgins
can be viewed as an inter language.
V.D.
Singh in his paper "portrait of a pidgin: Bazaar Hindi" discusses
about the variety of Hindi (which he calls a Bazaar Hindi) spoken in Shillong
the capital of Meghalaya. The people
of Shillong speak varieties of Languages such as Khasi, Hindi, many regional
dialects of Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Nepali, Manipuri, Mizo, Garo, Punjabi,
Malayalam, Marwari, Mikir and Kachari. Among
these different linguistic/ethnic groups, Bazaar Hindi a Hindi or Hindustani
based pidgin performs the function of a link language between rich and educated
and poor and Uneducated people of Shillong.
Sizable number of poor and uneducated people Shillong come from
Bihar
for their lively hood and speak Bazaar Hindi.
This Bazaar Hindi is influenced by Khasi, Bengali and Assamese and it is
extremely simplified and restricted in its grammar and lexicon and it is a
language in its own right.
C.J.
Roy in his paper "Malayalam a South Indian Creole" has made
Historic and Historic and Socio-Linguistic enquiries about the origin of
Malayalam language.
Author
remarks that history of Malayalam is shrouded in mystery objective attempts
were not made by the literary Historians and Grammarians on this issue.
Traditional scholars traced it from Sanskrit, some thought of independent
origin. Scholars who preferred to be
more objective noticed its close affinity with Tamil.
The possibility of Malayalam emerging out of a mixing of Tamil and
Sanskrit have also been suggested.
Author
approaches the issue from the creole point of view.
He states that Malayalam grew out from the contacts between the Tamil
natives and Aryan settlers in Kerala. Different
stages in this process of creolization are to be traced in the early literatures
of Malayalam.
Leelatilakam
the 14th century treatise of Manipravala and the grammatical
works during 16th and 17th centuries provide further
evidence on this issue. Structural and Lexical features of present day Malayalam
also support the creole theory. He
concludes with the remarks that the extensive shifts in meaning manifested by
the vocabulary of Malayalam, the problems connected with the establishment of
standard variety of Malayalam taking into consideration he features of Regional
and Social dialects and the difficulties encountered in settling up an ideal
orthography for Malayalam are supporting evidences for calling Malayalam a
creole. Author says that whether
this hypothesis could be extended to other South Indian languages or not is a
point for consideration.
Priya Hosali in her paper
on `Butler English' discusses the pidgin creole issue in Indian situation
and calls it (as coined by Kachru 1969) Cline of Bilingualism comprising of
three measuring points (1) The zero point (2) the Central point (3) The
ambilingual point. The variety of
English spoken by uneducated speakers i.e. The Domestic staff of Hotel catering
to tourists and upper class Indians, the domestic staff of prestigious and other
recreation centers.
Butlers
, The uneducated domestic staff employed in racially mixed household or
westernized Indian Households as zero point.
The variety of English spoken by the highly educated speakers of
different establishment like University, College, Officer of All India nature,
Business executives called as Standard Indian English as the Ambilingual point.
In between variety is a Central point.
Dr. Priya Hosali has
restricted her analysis to the zero point only.
Data are drawn from two
samples of Butler English from News papers of 100 years old and also from her
personal collection of the data. Statements
are made on the basis of the analysis of the data under study and reproducing
the data in support of her statements. Statements
that are made by Author on Butler English are as follows:
1.
Data indicate retention of content words and the deletion of function words like
articles and prepositions. Inspite
of this, communication takes place effectively.
2. At phonological
level, points observed are:
a)
Simplification of clusters
b)
Hyper correction
c)
Deletion of `h'
d)
Wrong pronunciation
3.
At Morphological level, points observed are:
a)
Deletion of plural marker, possessive marker,
concord, subject-object-verb.
b)
Gendermarked is natural
Ex:
Daughter as girl baby (Butler English)
Son
as boy baby (- Do - )
c)
In pronouns, Gender distinctions are
reduced/eliminated.
d)
In verbs, use of the present participle (or
gerund) for the present, Distinctions relating to time and continuity of action
are either understood from the context or indicated by adverbials.
e)
Copula deletion, occurrence of serial verb
structure, preterite indicative formed by `Done'.
4.
At syntactic level, points observed are:
a)
Sentence negative : Negator in Butler
English follows the subject and precedes the verb phrases.
b)
Question formation: (1) Interrogation is usually
signaled by intonation alone (2) Butler English has reduced the complex question
tags of standard English into one simple rule i.e., suffixation of `no'.
c)
Use of anaphoric or cataphoric pronoun.
d)
Minimum use of vocabulary.
5.
Neologistic creations : New words in Butler English are coined by
compounding, it is of three types.
1.
Word compounding (a) Both lexical
items are from English (b) Both lexical items are from Indian Languages (c) one
from English and the other from Indian languages.
This type of compounds are of three types, viz.
1.
English compounds
2.
Indian compounds
3.
Hybrid compounds
6.
Other observations are as follows:
a)
Reduplication is done to intensify the meaning
b)
Use of loan words
c)
Code mixing i.e., Indian words are used in English
sentence
d)
Code switching i.e., switching from one language
to another.
Author
observes that the structure of Butler English is simplified and reduced and
betrays the confluence of different linguistic traditions.
This does not mean that it is a simple language and when studied as a
language in its own right it is a neat work of complexities.
Thus, Butler English with its own limitations reveal about the nature of
human interaction through language and man's innate communicative competence.
Francis
Ekka* in his paper "Halbi dissected: A study of language mixture"
discusses the Halbi structures in relation to other languages like Marathi,
Chhattisgarhi, Bhatri etc. Author is primarily concerned with the examination of
direction and extent of language mixture particularly at the morphological and
syntactic levels of Halbi. By
language mixture, Author means the incorporation of features from more than one
speech.
Author
explains that Halbi converges with Marathi, Chhattingarhi and Bhatri either with
one language or with combination of two or more languages.
Author also mentions that three directions of convergence are noticed,
they are;
1.
Undirectional which exhibit convergence with one language at a time.
2.
Bidirectional which exhibit simultaneous convergence with two languages.
3.
Multidirectional which exhibit simultaneous convergence with more than two languages.
Author
concludes his paper with the remarks that the direction of convergence is not
confined to one particular language. Halbi
perhaps presents a Koine-Like situation which incorporates features from several
varieties of one language family. It
will be useful to compare phonological and lexical components of these languages
to substantiate the findings presented in the paper.
__________________
* The Editor
deeply regrets the sudden demise of Dr. Francis Ekka, Professor cum Deputy
Director, Central Institute of Indian Languages,
Mysore
in a tragic Bus accident.
PART
III
There
is one paper on code mixing by Dr. E. Annamalai.
India
being a multilingual and multi ethnic country has many languages.
According to 1971 census, there are 1652 mother tongues.
According to Vijayanunni "Out of the 400-odd
languages spoken in India, the Census of India publishes the details of
114 (comprising 216 individual languages or mother tongues) which have at the
All India level 10,000 or more speakers, which is the minimum strength laid down
by the Govt. of India for the publication of data since the 1971census.
The languages with a speaker strength less than 10,000 are shown under
`others'. Of the 114 languages, 18
are included in the Eighth schedule of the constitution and 96 are
non-scheduled. Speakers covered by
the scheduled languages constitute 96.29 per cent of the total population and
the remaining 3.71 per cent is accounted for by the non-scheduled languages.
The rate of national
average Bilingualism in 1991 is significantly high at 19.44 percent compared to
the National average recorded in the previous three census, viz. 1961 (9.7%),
1971 (13.04%) and 1981 (13.34%).
The National average for
Trilingualism which was presented for the first time in the 1991 census is 7.26
per cent. Out of the 838 million
people of India as per the 1991 census (excluding Jammu and Kashmir where the
census could not be conducted due to disturbed conditions), 163 million were
bilingual (19.44 per cent). Out of
these, 61 million (7.26per cent) were also trilingual i.e. knowing a third
language" (For details of the statistics, Readers may refer the full paper
of Sri M. Vijayanunni, Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India,
published in Hindu dated 16.7.1999 which is also enclosed as appendix `B'.
The purpose of my quoting
the above statistics is that Education plays an important role in code mixing,
similarly, Bilingualism and Trilingualism play an important role in code-mixing.
One can notice that educated men and women freely mix English along with
their mother tongue in the conversation with other educated people.
E. Annamalai in his paper
"the language factor in code mixing" discusses the issue of code
mixing during conversation.
Author explains that code
mixing is rule governed and that there are three variables must be taken into
account in the issue of code mixing: They are:
1.
The typology of the language involved in mixing.
2.
The psychological relationship of the speaker with the languages involved.
3.The
differences in the situations in which the languages are mixed.
Hence, the author emphasizes that Linguistic, Psycholiguistic and Socio
linguistic variables play an important role in determining the constraints on
mixing.
Author further explains
that codes are mixed not only in case of stable or balanced Bilingualism but
also in the case of developing Bilingualism as in the language learning
situation both formal and informal. One
cannot rule out the role of competence in determining the types of mixing.
Author says that code mixing is done among the Bilingual children also.
Author concludes his paper
with the remarks that "the Data base of studies of code mixing should be
extended to cover languages of different types and different situations of
Language contact".