2.2.6.1. Distributive
numerals:
Distributive
numerals are obtained by complete reduplication of the numerals concerned, eg.-
cà `one' → càcà `one
one'
tat `eight' → tattat `eight
eight'
pƏn `ten' → pƏnpƏn `
ta `twenty' → tata `
2.2.6.2.
Fractions:
The
fractions are the following:-
Əpoí pilí (cà) `one fourth'
Əpoŋ lim (cà) `three fourth'
Əteŋ `half'
The
element Əpoŋ in the first two means part/share. But the term for half is a monomorphemic
unit.
Other fractions are obtained
in this way-
càphƏy Əpoŋ lim `one and three fourth'
càphey Əpoŋ pilí `one and one fourth'
yiphƏy Ətaŋ `two and a half'.
From
above it becomes clear that a bound form phƏy `after' is obligatorily
added after the higher numerals and before the fractions. It is the same form as used in counting the
numerals. But me Ə
is dropped
here.
It is
also possible to have alternative constructions, eg.- po l mpu lim `three parts
from four'.
But the
above forms are preferred over this type.
In
monetary transactions the following units are used-
Basic
monomorphemic units-
hìki `a
unit of 4 annas'
posa- `anna'
(as in posac `one anna')
The second form is a bound one and requires the use of a
numeral for its use.
Ətmoya `two
annas'
Əthuli `
annas' (borrowed from Assamese)
ŋinkhƏw- `rupee'
(as in ŋin khƏw cà `one rupee')
This
form also requires numerals, similar to posa.
naya
`naya paise' (borrowed from Assamese)
Combinations
are formed as follows:-
hìklim
`12 annas' (lit.hìki multiplied by three')
Here
also higher numbers occur before the smaller numers i.e., rupees before
nayapaisa and etc., eg.-
(ŋinkhƏw) tat thuli = Rs.8.50
or
tat
tiyícàpƏn
(ŋinkhƏw) càhìki = Rs.1.25
(ŋinkhƏw) ñitilimca = Rs.2.60
In
counting money as above, ŋinkhƏw is optional. In many countings upto Rs.99 inkhw is used
and for counting above 100, ŋikhoca- is used eg.- inkhoca `one hundren rupees'.
ŋinha
caca `one thousand rupees', etc.
2.2.6.3.
In calculating
time – for `hour' two forms are used-
i.
khuta – refers to `hour' as a unit of time; and
ii.
bace* - refers to `time' as shown by a clock.
eg.- khunta ñit `seven hours'
khunta
pƏnmƏ ñí `12
hours'
ñit
pace `seven o'
clock'
ñí
pace `two o'
clock'
pƏnmcà
`twelve o' clock', etc.
As can be
noticed above, in case of khunta numerals follow it and in case of pace
numerals precede it.
For
fractions, `half' is the same form as used in monetary counting, Ətha eg.-
tatpace Ətha
8
o' clock (and) thirty minutes'
ŋapace Ə tha `five
o' clock thirty minutes; etc.
The other fractions are expressed in the following way tat ŋóy
ne panmƏŋa `quarter to eight' (lit, `eight-to become fifteen
minutes).
ŋóyne `to become/to reach' is an adverb used here to link the
hour and the minute, etc.
2.2.6.7. A few measuring units are used in this language. They are the following:-
1.
yàkwaŋcà `one hand length'
(yàk `hand', woŋ `length')
2.
phakaw `the length of one arm (including hand),
3.
phak `length between one hand to another'
4.
yàkkay `the distance between thumb tip and the
finger tip'.
* probably borrowed from Assamese.
2.3. Adjectives:
2.3.0. Adjectives are noun attributes. They are capable of taking degree markers. They are morphologically marked. The markers are Ə– and –pu. While Ə– is prefixed –pu is suffixed. They are in complementary distribution.
Adjectives are basically monomorphemic with mono – or disyallabic structure eg.-
i) yóŋ `big' ii) yƏwmƏy `beautiful'
heŋ `white' yƏwmeƏŋ `ugly'
mƏy `good' móŋsí? `angry'
mƏaŋ `bad' ƏtƏm `some', etc.
hiŋ `green'
2.3.1. Basically adjectives follow the Noun, though there are a few instances where adjectives precede the noun in a Noun Phrase. When the adjectives follow the noun, they take –marker; and when they precede the noun, take –pu marker. eg.-
a) kowƏy `horse' + Əhen `white' → kowƏy Əheŋ `white horse'
ŋin `money' + ƏtƏm `some' → ŋin ƏtƏm `some money'
tò `basket' + Əyóŋ `big' → tò Əyóŋ `big basket'
lay `paper' + Əñàk `black' → lay Əñàk `black paper'
ka? a `man' + ƏmƏy `good' → ka?ta ƏmƏy `good man'
b) yƏwmƏypu `beautiful' + nawya `girl → yƏwmƏypu-
nawya `beautiful girl'
yƏwmeƏpu `ugly' + ciŋ `village' → yƏwmeƏŋ – puciŋ `ugly village'
2.3.2. Semantically adjectives can be of the following types-
1. Qualifying type, eg. ƏmƏy `good'
ƏmeƏŋ `bad'
yƏwmƏypu `beautiful'
yƏwmeƏŋpu `ugly', etc.
2. Quantifying type, eg.
ƏtƏm
`some'
Əñu
`big'
Əha
`small'
eyóŋ `big'
Əŋóŋ `many'
3. Colour terms, eg.
Əheŋ `white'
Əhiŋ `green'
Əñàk `black', etc.
2.3.3. When more than one adjective occurs in a Noun Phrase as attribute, the construction `Noun-adjective' constitutes a compound construction. That means adjective marker is dropped. When more than one type of adjectives occur in a single construction, usually `qualify' adjectives occur before the noun and `quantify' adjectives occur after the nouns.
eg:- yƏwmƏypu ciŋƏñu `beautiful big city'
1
H 2
1 2 H
layheŋ ƏpƏ `white long paper'
H 1
2 1
2 H
When adjective marker is
used the construction is a phrase; while when it is dropped the construction is
a `word'.
eg.- pe
`tree' Əyóŋ `big' →
pe
Əyóŋ `big tree (tree which is
big)
peyóŋ
`big tree'
tò
`basket' Əheŋ `white' → tòheŋ
`white basket' tòƏheŋ `basket
which
is white'
2.3.4. The adjectives take degree markers. For comparative and superlative degrees,
While the positive is unmarked. The
comparative marker is si- which is prefixed to the adjective; and the
superlative marker is si…Adj…pu.
The latter is a discontinuous morpheme.
To obtain agentive nouns agentive marker pa is used. It is placed after pu (of superlative
marker). eg-
Positive Comparative Superlative
yƏnòk ayóŋ yƏnmòk siyóŋ yƏnmóksiyóŋpupa
`big
animal' `bigger animal `biggest animal'
ka?taƏyóŋ ka?ta siyóŋ ka?tasiyóŋpupa
`big
man' `bigger man' `biggest man'
ƏmƏy `good' simƏy `better' `simƏypu `best'
Ətaw `tall' `sitaw `taller' `sitawpu `tallest'
Əñàk `black' `siñàk `blacker' `siñàkpu `blackest'
2.3.5. In Noun-adjective constructions, if the Noun
is in plural, the plural marker is optional if the number is one of the
attributes. And if the attribute is
anything other than a numeral, the plural marker is placed after the adjective.
eg.-
a)
tò `basket' tò Əyóŋ `big' + lan pl. marker →
tòyóŋlan
`big baskets'
lay `paper' + Əheŋ `white' → lay
Əheŋlan `white papers'
b)
nòk `house' +Əyóŋ `big' + ñí`two'
→ nòkyóŋñí
`two
big houses' (`word')
nòk Əyoŋñí `two big houses'
(`phrase')
nawya `girl' + Əcuy `small' + pilí → `four'
nawya Əcuy pilí
`four
small girls'
Adjectives
can be derived from verbs, by using (suffixing) adjective marker –pu.
eg-
lí `to die' → lípu
`dead'
toy `to be
poor' → toypu `poor'
ñƏy `to
soften' → ñƏypu `soft'
wíŋ `to be
cool' → wiŋpu `cool'
By using negative marker yi, it is possible to get negative adjectives, For instance.-
ƏmƏy `good' can be changed into
`bad' by using the negative marker. The
status of the form still remains the same.
So, yimƏy `bad'. When
so used the adjective marker is
dropped. The negative marker Ə
is prefixed
always.
Similarly
: siŋ `known' → yisiŋ `not known/innocent'
khaw `broad' → ykhaw `narrow'
But this
type is not used frequently, and is restricted only to some adjectives.
2.3.6.
Adjectives can be indefinite. All
the indefinite pronouns can function as indefinite adjectives. They have the same structure of the
indefinite pronouns. Besides these, the
following also are used in this function, eg :
ƏmpukƏn `herever'
Əwhine `whosoever'
cinmman `never' etc.,
2.4. Verb
Morphology
2.4.0. The Konyak verb system consists of verb forms
built upon verb stems. A stem is listed
as a verb stem if it regularly takes the formative elements proper for a verb;
namely tense, aspect and mood markers.
Verbs are of two types syntactically 1. complete (finite) and 2.
incomplete (non-finite). Finite verbs
are those which take tense/aspect/ mood markers, while non-finite verbs are
those which cannot take t/a/m markers, but can take gerundial marker only. Syntactically while finite verb can occur in
a simple sentence, non-finite verb cannot occur in a simple sentence. Also a complete verb can function as an auxiliary
when it occurs with another verb.
Verbs
are unmarked morphologically. Verbs are
`basic' in the sense that they are not derived from any other form classes.
2.4.1. Classification of verbs: On the ability of the
verb to take one or more objects, the verbs are grouped into the following
types.
2.4.1.1. Intransitive verbs – those which cannot take an
object. (eg. tay `go', si `sleep' etc.).
2.4.1.2. Transitive verbs – those verbs which can take an
object. (eg. ha? `to eat', ñan `to write', etc.)
2.4.1.3. Di-transitive verbs – those verbs which can take more than one object (eg: pha `give', etc).
2.4.1.4. Verbs can be classified semantically also into various types depending upon to what type of object they take (Chafe 1970). On this basis the following types can be noted-
1. State: In sentences like-
kah?taƏlínàŋ `man is dead'
yaƏ níŋ ŋo? `she was fat'
tƏwƏ phawcàne ŋo? `It was a plant' etc.
The verb states the condition of the subject (patient). Therefore these verbs belong to the class of state or static verbs.
2. Process: In sentences like ka? ta lì `man died'
yì yèŋ ŋay `ice became water'
eƏ ŋa ŋay `he became mad'
ta? kep ep `the door opened'
peƏ Əyóŋ ŋay `the tree became big' etc.
the verb indicates a change of state from one
situation to another of the Noun (subject), these are called process verbs.
3.
Action: In sentence like ka? ta phƏt `man ran'
nawya ƏcinnƏ
sƏp `the lean girl `wept'
ƏwhalannƏ pù `the small birds flew' etc.,
the
verb indicates the `action' performed by the Noun (subject); without involving
any change of states. So these verbs are
called action verbs.
It is possible to have combinations of
action and process as when subject and object are involved.
egs: tƏw ák toy
`I
killed a pig'
nahaƏ e ŋe `the child saw him'
yaƏ yèŋ yìŋ
`she
drank water'
sikoñuƏ laysitic ' tƏw`the woman received a
letter', etc.
2.4.1.5. The above 3 types are universal in nature. But there is one more type of verb which is significant; and is not universal, but found in Konyak. It is `Ambient'. These verbs are those which do not have a Noun. Eg-
(tƏwƏ) sem nàŋ `(it) is not'
sùnpúyaŋ `(it) is night'
waŋ ñàk púyaŋ `(it) is dark'
sòpúyaŋ `(it) is done'
In these, there seems to
involve nothing but a predication, in which there is no `thing' of which the
predication, in which there is no `thing' of which the predication is
made. In these the `it' is only a
surface element. Though it can be termed
as `state' verb, but do not fulfil the needs of `state' verbs. So these can be called `state ambient'
verbs. There are action ambient verbs as
in-
(tƏwƏ) waykƏy nàŋki `(it) is raining'
Here also the above
situation regarding it is found.
2.4.1.6. Verb stems have a base which may be a root, or a root combination. On this basis verb stems are classified as simple and compound. Simple stems are those which consist of a single root. The favorite canonical structure of verb roots are
V, VC, CV and CVC
Eg: e `read' ha? `eat'
òŋ leak' tay `go'
nò `liftup' pƏy `come'
phƏt `run' and etc.
These are all
monosyllabic monomorphemic roots.
Compound verbs consist of two or more verb roots, or may consist of one
verb root followed or preceded by one or more other elements such as nouns or
adverbs. Two member compounds are
frequent than the three member compounds. Details of verb compounding is dealt
with in the next section.
2.4.2. Verb
Compounding:
Verb compounds are those which have a verb root as the head. The constituents of a verb compound may be any of these – 1. verb-verb; 2. noun-verb, 3. verb-noun, and 4. verb-adverb.
1. Verb-Verb: The verb compounds of this structure are co-ordinate structures. That is, it is not possible to treat one constituent as the head and the other as attribute. Both members are treated as in coordinate relation. They convey a `simultaneous action' eg.
tìmtƏm `pack' (eg. into a box)
In the above verb compound, the first member tìm a verb, means `to put'. By simultaneous activity of `arranging and putting', the compound `to pack' is obtained. So the members are in coordinate relation to each other. Similar compounds are- tnty `move' (an object from one spot to another).
tùn, v `pick up'
tƏy, v `move'
phƏttay `runaway, flee' phƏt `run'
tay, v `go'